Chassis

A chassis is an underlying supporting structure – such as a skeleton in an animal, or the metal frame in a television on which the circuit boards and other components are mounted. In a motor vehicle, a traditional chassis gave the vehicle structural strength as well as a platform on which to mount the engine, the wheels, the transmission, and all the other mechanical components. Also bolted onto this frame was the body, or coachwork. Originally made of wood, the vehicle chassis soon became an open steel ladder-frame structure. A separate chassis is still the preferred structural basis for commercial vehicles, which are often sold without a body at all but with the running gear mounted to a chassis only, or in a 'cowl-and-chassis' or 'cab-and-chassis' configuration so that specialized bodies can be fitted to them for different purposes. Body-on-frame used to be the preferred way of building passenger vehicles too, because it allowed new models of vehicles with different body styles to be released without having to retool most of the mechanical and structural components. In the 1960s, most manufacturers switched to vehicle designs which either partially or wholly integrated the bodywork into a single unit with the chassis so that the body became part of the structure of the vehicle rather than just an external skin. The idea of a single shell – or 'monocoque' – design was first used in aircraft, then spread to automobiles, and became popular with manufacturers because with less of a chassis component it was both quicker to manufacture and lighter in weight, therefore costing less in both material and labor. The spot-welded unit body process, known as 'Unibody', is the predominant vehicle construction technology today. High performance racing cars today have no chassis at all, their structural strength coming from their light, stiff, and stable body shells molded from newer lightweight materials such as carbon fiber reinforced plastics.

Turbine engine

Turbine engines produce thrust by increasing the velocity of the air flowing through the engine. A turbine engine consists of an air inlet, compressor, combustion chambers, turbine section, and exhaust. Figure 1: Basic components of a turbine engine. The turbine engine has the following advantages over a reciprocating engine: less vibration, increased aircraft performance, reliability, and ease of operation. Types of turbine engines Turbine engines are classified according to the type of compressors they use. The compressor types fall into three categories—centrifugal flow, axial flow, and centrifugal-axial flow. Compression of inlet air is achieved in a centrifugal flow engine by accelerating air outward perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the machine. The axial-flow engine compresses air by a series of rotating and stationary airfoils moving the air parallel to the longitudinal axis. The centrifugalaxial flow design uses both kinds of compressors to achieve the desired compression. The path the air takes through the engine and how power is produced determines the type of engine. There are four types of aircraft turbine engines—turbojet, turboprop, turbofan, and turboshaft. Turbojet The turbojet engine contains four sections: compressor, combustion chamber, turbine section, and exhaust. The compressor section passes inlet air at a high rate of speed to the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber contains the fuel inlet and igniter for combustion. The expanding air drives a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the compressor, sustaining engine operation. The accelerated exhaust gases from the engine provide thrust. This is a basic application of compressing air, igniting the fuel-air mixture, producing power to self-sustain the engine operation, and exhaust for propulsion. Turbojet engines are limited on range and endurance. They are also slow to respond to throttle applications at slow compressor speeds. Turboprop A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives a propeller through a reduction gear. The exhaust gases drive a power turbine connected by a shaft that drives the reduction gear assembly. Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum propeller performance is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine’s operating r.p.m. Turboprop engines are a compromise between turbojet engines and reciprocating powerplants. Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds between 250 and 400 m.p.h. and altitudes between 18,000 and 30,000 feet. They also perform well at the slow airspeeds required for takeoff and landing, and are fuel efficient. The minimum specific fuel consumption of the turboprop engine is normally available in the altitude range of 25,000 feet to the tropopause. Turbofan Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best features of the turbojet and the turboprop. Turbofan engines are designed to create additional thrust by diverting a secondary airflow around the combustion chamber. The turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust, cools the engine, and aids in exhaust noise suppression. This provides turbojet-type cruise speed and lower fuel consumption. The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine is usually divided into two separate streams of air. One stream passes through the engine core, while a second stream bypasses the engine core. It is this bypass stream of air that is responsible for the term “bypass engine.” A turbofan’s bypass ratio refers to the ratio of the mass airflow that passes through the fan divided by the mass airflow that passes through the engine core. Turboshaft The fourth common type of jet engine is the turboshaft. It delivers power to a shaft that drives something other than a propeller. The biggest difference between a turbojet and turboshaft engine is that on a turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the expanding gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust. Many helicopters use a turboshaft gas turbine engine. In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as auxiliary power units on large aircraft. Performance comparison It is possible to compare the performance of a reciprocating powerplant and different types of turbine engines. However, for the comparison to be accurate, thrust horsepower (usable horsepower) for the reciprocating powerplant must be used rather than brake horsepower, and net thrust must be used for the turbine-powered engines. In addition, aircraft design configuration, and size must be approximately the same. BHP Brake horsepower is the horsepower actually delivered to the output shaft. Brake horsepower is the actual usable horsepower. Net Thrust The thrust produced by a turbojet or turbofan engine. THP Thrust horsepower is the horsepower equivalent of the thrust produced by a turbojet or turbofan engine. ESHP Equivalent shaft horsepower, with respect to turboprop engines, is the sum of the shaft horsepower (SHP) delivered to the propeller and the thrust horsepower (THP) produced by the exhaust gases. Figure 2: Engine net thrust versus aircraft speed and drag. Figure 2 shows how four types of engines compare in net thrust as airspeed is increased. This figure is for explanatory purposes only and is not for specific models of engines. The four types of engines are: Reciprocating powerplant. Turbine, propeller combination (turboprop). Turbine engine incorporating a fan (turbofan). Turbojet (pure jet). The comparison is made by plotting the performance curve for each engine, which shows how maximum aircraft speed varies with the type of engine used. Since the graph is only a means of comparison, numerical values for net thrust, aircraft speed, and drag are not included. Comparison of the four powerplants on the basis of net thrust makes certain performance capabilities evident. In the speed range shown to the left of Line A, the reciprocating powerplant outperforms the other three types. The turboprop outperforms the turbofan in the range to the left of Line C. The turbofan engine outperforms the turbojet in the range to the left of Line F. The turbofan engine outperforms the reciprocating powerplant to the right of Line B and the turboprop to the right of Line C. The turbojet outperforms the reciprocating powerplant to the right of Line D, the turboprop to the right of Line E, and the turbofan to the right of Line F. The points where the aircraft drag curve intersects the net thrust curves are the maximum aircraft speeds. The vertical lines from each of the points to the baseline of the graph indicate that the turbojet aircraft can attain a higher maximum speed than aircraft equipped with the other types of engines. Aircraft equipped with the turbofan engine will attain a higher maximum speed than aircraft equipped with a turboprop or reciprocating powerplant. Turbine engine instruments Engine instruments that indicate oil pressure, oil temperature, engine speed, exhaust gas temperature, and fuel flow are common to both turbine and reciprocating engines. However, there are some instruments that are unique to turbine engines. These instruments provide indications of engine pressure ratio, turbine discharge pressure, and torque. In addition, most gas turbine engines have multiple temperature-sensing instruments, called thermocouples, that provide pilots with temperature readings in and around the turbine section. Engine pressure ratio An engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge is used to indicate the power output of a turbojet/turbofan engine. EPR is the ratio of turbine discharge to compressor inlet pressure. Pressure measurements are recorded by probes installed in the engine inlet and at the exhaust. Once collected, the data is sent to a differential pressure transducer, which is indicated on a cockpit EPR gauge. EPR system design automatically compensates for the effects of airspeed and altitude. However, changes in ambient temperature do require a correction to be applied to EPR indications to provide accurate engine power settings. Exhaust gas temperature A limiting factor in a gas turbine engine is the temperature of the turbine section. The temperature of a turbine section must be monitored closely to prevent overheating the turbine blades and other exhaust section components. One common way of monitoring the temperature of a turbine section is with an exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauge. EGT is an engine operating limit used to monitor overall engine operating conditions. Variations of EGT systems bear different names based on the location of the temperature sensors. Common turbine temperature sensing gauges include the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) gauge, turbine outlet temperature (TOT) gauge, interstage turbine temperature (ITT) gauge, and turbine gas temperature (TGT) gauge. Torquemeter Turboprop/turboshaft engine power output is measured by the torquemeter. Torque is a twisting force applied to a shaft. The torquemeter measures power applied to the shaft. Turboprop and turboshaft engines are designed to produce torque for driving a propeller. Torquemeters are calibrated in percentage units, foot-pounds, or pounds per square inch. N1 indicator N1 represents the rotational speed of the low pressure compressor and is presented on the indicator as a percentage of design r.p.m. After start the speed of the low pressure compressor is governed by the N1 turbine wheel. The N1 turbine wheel is connected to the low pressure compressor through a concentric shaft. N2 indicator N2 represents the rotational speed of the high pressure compressor and is presented on the indicator as a percentage of design r.p.m. The high pressure compressor is governed by the N2 turbine wheel. The N2 turbine wheel is connected to the high pressure compressor through a concentric shaft. Figure 3: Dual-spool axial-flow compressor. Turbine engine operational considerations Because of the great variety of turbine engines, it is impractical to cover specific operational procedures. However, there are certain operational considerations that are common to all turbine engines. They are engine temperature limits, foreign object damage, hot start, compressor stall, and flameout. Engine temperature limitations The highest temperature in any turbine engine occurs at the turbine inlet. Turbine inlet temperature is therefore usually the limiting factor in turbine engine operation. Thrust variations Turbine engine thrust varies directly with air density. As air density decreases, so does thrust. While both turbine and reciprocating powered engines are affected to some degree by high relative humidity, turbine engines will experience a negligible loss of thrust, while reciprocating engines a significant loss of brake horsepower. Foreign object damage Due to the design and function of a turbine engine’s air inlet, the possibility of ingestion of debris always exists. This causes significant damage, particularly to the compressor and turbine sections. When this occurs, it is called foreign object damage (FOD). Typical FOD consists of small nicks and dents caused by ingestion of small objects from the ramp, taxiway, or runway. However, FOD damage caused by bird strikes or ice ingestion can also occur, and may result in total destruction of an engine. Prevention of FOD is a high priority. Some engine inlets have a tendency to form a vortex between the ground and the inlet during ground operations. A vortex dissipater may be installed on these engines. Other devices, such as screens and/or deflectors, may also be utilized. Preflight procedures include a visual inspection for any sign of FOD. Turbine engine hot/hung start A hot start is when the EGT exceeds the safe limit. Hot starts are caused by too much fuel entering the combustion chamber, or insufficient turbine r.p.m. Any time an engine has a hot start, refer to the AFM, POH, or an appropriate maintenance manual for inspection requirements. If the engine fails to accelerate to the proper speed after ignition or does not accelerate to idle r.p.m., a hung start has occurred. A hung start, may also be called a false start. A hung start may be caused by an insufficient starting power source or fuel control malfunction. Compressor stalls Compressor blades are small airfoils and are subject to the same aerodynamic principles that apply to any airfoil. A compressor blade has an angle of attack. The angle of attack is a result of inlet air velocity and the compressor’s rotational velocity. These two forces combine to form a vector, which defines the airfoil’s actual angle of attack to the approaching inlet air. A compressor stall can be described as an imbalance between the two vector quantities, inlet velocity and compressor rotational speed. Compressor stalls occur when the compressor blades’ angle of attack exceeds the critical angle of attack. At this point, smooth airflow is interrupted and turbulence is created with pressure fluctuations. Compressor stalls cause air flowing in the compressor to slow down and stagnate, sometimes reversing direction. Figure 4: Comparison of normal and distorted airflow into the compressor section. Compressor stalls can be transient and intermittent or steady state and severe. Indications of a transient/intermittent stall are usually an intermittent “bang” as backfire and flow reversal take place. If the stall develops and becomes steady, strong vibration and a loud roar may develop from the continuous flow reversal. Quite often the cockpit gauges will not show a mild or transient stall, but will indicate a developed stall. Typical instrument indications include fluctuations in r.p.m., and an increase in exhaust gas temperature. Most transient stalls are not harmful to the engine and often correct themselves after one or two pulsations. The possibility of engine damage, which may be severe, from a steady state stall is immediate. Recovery must be accomplished quickly by reducing power, decreasing the airplane’s angle of attack and increasing airspeed. Although all gas turbine engines are subject to compressor stalls, most models have systems that inhibit these stalls. One such system uses variable inlet guide vane (VIGV) and variable stator vanes, which direct the incoming air into the rotor blades at an appropriate angle. The main way to prevent air pressure stalls is to operate the airplane within the parameters established by the manufacturer. If a compressor stall does develop, follow the procedures recommended in the AFM or POH. Flameout A flameout is a condition in the operation of a gas turbine engine in which the fire in the engine unintentionally goes out. If the rich limit of the fuel/air ratio is exceeded in the combustion chamber, the flame will blow out. This condition is often referred to as a rich flameout. It generally results from very fast engine acceleration, where an overly rich mixture causes the fuel temperature to drop below the combustion temperature. It also may be caused by insufficient airflow to support combustion. Another, more common flameout occurrence is due to low fuel pressure and low engine speeds, which typically are associated with high-altitude flight. This situation also may occur with the engine throttled back during a descent, which can set up the lean-condition flameout. A weak mixture can easily cause the flame to die out, even with a normal airflow through the engine. Any interruption of the fuel supply also can result in a flameout. This may be due to prolonged unusual attitudes, a malfunctioning fuel control system, turbulence, icing or running out of fuel. Symptoms of a flameout normally are the same as those following an engine failure. If the flameout is due to a transitory condition, such as an imbalance between fuel flow and engine speed, an airstart may be attempted once the condition is corrected. In any case, pilots must follow the applicable emergency procedures outlined in the AFM or POH. Generally, these procedures contain recommendations concerning altitude and airspeed where the airstart is most likely to be successful.

VVT-i, VVTL-i, Dual VVT-i, VVT-iE

VVT-i, or Variable Valve Timing with intelligence, is an automobile variable valve timing technology developed by Toyota, similar in performance to the BMW’s VANOS. The Toyota VVT-i system replaces the Toyota VVT offered starting in 1991 on the 5-valve per cylinder 4A-GE engine. The VVT system is a 2-stage hydraulically controlled cam phasing system. VVT-i, introduced in 1996, varies the timing of the intake valves by adjusting the relationship between the camshaft drive (belt, scissor-gear or chain) and intake camshaft. Engine oil pressure is applied to an actuator to adjust the camshaft position. Adjustments in the overlap time between the exhaust valve closing and intake valve opening result in improved engine efficiency.[1] Variants of the system, including VVTL-i, Dual VVT-i, VVT-iE, and Valvematic, have followed. There are a couple of ways by which car manufacturer's vary the valve timing. The most well known system is the VTEC which is used on some of the Honda engines. Other systems which some of you might not have heard of are: VarioCam/VarioCam Plus which is used on some of the Porsche engines, MIVEC(Mitsubishi Innovative Valve timing and lift Electronic Control) which is used on the Mitsubishi engines, VVT-i(Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence) and now VVTL-i (Variable Valve Timing and Lift with Intelligence) which is being used on the current Toyota and some Lexus engines, VVL(Variable Valve Lift) which is used on the Nissan engines and also featured in the 350Z is the CVTCS (Continuously Variable Valve Timing System) VANOS(Variable Onckenwellen Steuerung) which is used in the BMW engines and also the Double VANOS system on the new 3 Series and they are many more similar systems used by manufacturers such as Ford, Lamborghini and even Ferrari. What do all these Vs have in common? Well, in case you don't already know (or haven't yet guessed despite the monster hint in the article's title), the V stands for valves or, more specifically, variable valve timing. Before you can appreciate how important valve timing is, you have to understand how it relates to engine operation. Remember that an engine is basically a glorified air pump and, as such, the most effective way to increase horsepower and/or efficiency is to increase an engine's ability to process air. There are a number of ways to do this that range from altering the exhaust system to upgrading the fuel system to installing a less-restrictive air filter. Since an engine's valves play a major role in how air gets in and out of the combustion chamber, it makes sense to focus on them when looking to increase horsepower and efficiency. This is exactly what Honda, Toyota and BMW and quite a number of other manufacturer's have done in recent years. By using advanced systems to alter the opening and closing of engine valves, they have created more powerful and clean burning engines that require less fuel and are relatively small in displacement. Before we take a look at each of these variable valve-timing systems, let's rehash how valve timing normally works. Until recently, a manufacturer used one or more camshafts (plus some pushrods, lifters and rocker arms) to open and close an engine's valves. The camshaft/camshafts was turned by a timing chain that connected to the crankshaft. As engine rpm's rose and fell, the crankshaft and camshaft would turn faster or slower to keep valve timing relatively close to what was needed for engine operation. Unfortunately, the dynamics of airflow through a combustion chamber change radically between 2,000 rpm and 6,000 rpm. Despite the manufacturer's best efforts, there was just no way to maximize valve timing for high and low rpm with a simple crankshaft-driven valve train. Instead, engineers had to develop a "compromise" system that would allow an engine to start and run when pulling out of the driveway but also allow for strong acceleration and highway cruising at 70+ mph. Obviously, they were successful. However, because of the "compromise" nature of standard valve train systems, few engines were ever in their "sweet zone," which resulted in wasted fuel and reduced performance. Variable valve timing has changed all that. By coming up with a way to alter valve timing between high and low rpm's, Honda, Toyota and BMW and many more manufacturer's can now tune valve operation for optimum performance and efficiency throughout the entire rev range. Honda was the first to offer what it called VTEC in its Acura-badged performance models like the Integra GS-R and NSX (it has since worked its way into the Prelude and even the lowly Civic). VTEC stands for Variable Valve Timing and Lift Electronic Control. It basically uses two sets of camshaft profiles-one for low and mid-range rpm and one for high rpm operation. An electronic switch shifts between the two profiles at a specific rpm to increase peak horsepower and improve torque. As a VTEC driver, you can both hear and feel the change when the VTEC "kicks in" at higher rpm levels to improve performance. While this system does not offer continuously variable valve timing, it can make the most of high rpm operation while still providing solid drivability at lower rpm levels. Honda is already working on a three-step VTEC system that will further improve performance and efficiency across the engine rpm range. The camshaft in a pushrod engine is often driven by gears or a short chain. Gear-drives are generally less prone to breakage than belt drives, which are often found in overhead cam engines. Toyota saw the success Honda was having with VTEC (from both a functional and marketing standpoint) but decided to go a different route. Instead of the on/off system that VTEC employs, Toyota decided it wanted a continuously variable system that would maximize valve timing throughout the rpm range. Dubbed VVTi for Variable Valve Timing with intelligence (Is this a dig at Honda, suggesting their system isn't intelligent?), Toyota uses a hydraulic rather than mechanical system to alter the intake cam's phasing. The main difference from VTEC is that VVTi maintains the same cam profile and alters only when the valves open and close in relation to engine speed. Also, this system works only on the intake valve while VTEC has two settings for the intake and the exhaust valves, which makes for a more dramatic gain in peak power than VVTi can claim. Ferrari has a really neat way of doing this. The camshafts on some Ferrari engines are cut with a three-dimensional profile that varies along the length of the cam lobe. At one end of the cam lobe is the least aggressive cam profile, and at the other end is the most aggressive. The shape of the cam smoothly blends these two profiles together. A mechanism can slide the whole camshaft laterally so that the valve engages different parts of the cam. The shaft still spins just like a regular camshaft, but by gradually sliding the camshaft laterally as the engine speed and load increase, the valve timing can be optimized. Several other manufacturers, including Ford, Lamborghini and Porsche have jumped on the cam phasing bandwagon because it is a relatively cheap method of increasing horsepower, torque and efficiency. BMW has also used a cam phasing system, called VANOS (Variable Onckenwellen Steuerung) for several years. Like the other manufacturers, this system only affected the intake cams. But, as of 1999, BMW is offering its Double VANOS system on the new 3 Series. As you might have guessed, Double VANOS manipulates both the intake and exhaust camshafts to provide efficient operation at all rpm's. This helps the new 328i, equipped with a 2.8-liter inline six, develop 193 peak horsepower and 206 pound-feet of torque. More impressive than the peak numbers, however, is the broad range of useable power that goes along with this system. Several engine manufacturers are experimenting with systems that would allow infinite variability in valve timing. For example, imagine that each valve had a solenoid on it that could open and close the valve using computer control rather than relying on a camshaft. With this type of system, you would get maximum engine performance at every RPM. Something to look forward to in the future! To close these series of articles on camshafts, you can see that as the benefits of variable valve timing used on cams become more apparent to both consumers and manufacturers, you can expect to see it on just about every vehicle sold in the world. I suspect that in five years, variable valve timing will be like ABS or side-impact beams: only really cheap cars won't have it.

history of automobile

1770: Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built a three wheeled steam powered wagon. An example is preserved at the Musee des Arts et Metiers, Paris.
1801: Richard Trevithick built a steam powered coach. (His later 1803 carriage had a road accident.)
1861, UK: Speed limits of 10mph (16km/h) in the country and 5mph (8km/h) in town were imposed on powered vehicles.
1865, UK: Speed limits were lowered to 4mph (country) and 2mph (town) and a man on foot and carrying a red flag had to precede each vehicle by 60 yards, esp. to warn those with horses. (After 1878 the man on foot no longer needed to carry a flag.)
1884: Starley and Sutton invent the Rover Safety Cycle (bicycle); the company later developed into Rover cars.
1885: Karl Benz (1844-1929) built a motorised tricycle driven by an oil-spirit internal combustion engine in 1885. This is widely held to be the first successful motor vehicle.
1885: Gottlieb Daimler (1834-1900) built a motorised bicycle in 1885 and a 4-wheel motor carriage in 1886.
1892 August 26: Rudolf Diesel filed a patent application for 'a method of apparatus for converting heat into work,' US letters patent #542,846, 16 July 1895, and, filed 15 July 1895, 'internal combustion engine' #608,845, 9 August 1898 -- the compression-ignition, "diesel" engine.
1896, UK: Speed limits on light [road-] locomotives were raised from 4mph to 14mph and they no longer needed to be preceded by a man on foot. The first London to Brighton run was held in celebration.
1898: The World Land Speed Record was set at 63.15km/h (39.24mph) by Gaston the Comte de Chasseloup-Laubat driving a Jeantaud electric car [Geo00].
1898: The Renault Voiturette type A.
1898: Latil (France) made front wheel drive units and then 4x4.
1898: Tatra started manufacturing.
1899: Camille Jenatzy and de Chasseloup-Laubat traded the Land Speed Records until Jenatzy raised it to 105.88km/h (65.75mph) driving the electric La Jamais Contente [Geo00]. The car survives at the Compiegne Musee de la Voiture (Automobile Museum).
1899: Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino (Fiat) was formed.
1899: August Horch began a car company carrying his own surname in 1899; it evolved into Auto-Union and eventually Audi.
1900: Ferdinand Porsche's La Toujours Contente had battery-power with four electric motors, one at each wheel. (He later patented the Mixte transmission in which a petrol engine drove a dynamo and electric motors drove the wheels. It was too expensive for the day.)
1900: Puch's first car.
1901: Volume imports of cars began into Australia starting with De Dion Boutons.
1902: Leon Serpollet raised the Land Speed Record to 120.8km/h (75.06mph) in the Easter Egg Gardner-Serpollet steam car [Geo00].
1902: Mercedes registered as a trademark. March 1, 1902, the first 40hp Mercedes Simplex ever built was supplied to Emil Jellinek in Nice. It was named after Jellinek's daughter.
1902: Charles Stewart Rolls starts up C.S. Rolls and Co., later Rolls Royce.
1902: Spyker featured a 6-cylinder engine and four wheel drive!
1902: Minerva started making cars.
1903: Ford, Model A.
1904: The Federation International de l'Automobile (FIA) was founded.
1904: Rover 8hp.
1906: Societa Italinana Automobili Darracq (SIAD) founded; it later became Alfa Romeo (about 1921).
1906: Vincenzo Lancia released his first car.
1906: Fred Marriott, driving a Stanley steam car, at Daytona, raised the World Land Speed record to 121.57mph [NT98] over 1km; his speed of 127.66mph over one mile was not recognised internationally. (Also see Aug. 2009.)
1907: Felix and Norman Caldwell of South Australia applied for a patent for four wheel drive with four wheel steering; they went on to build Caldwell Vale 4x4 trucks with Henry Vale.
1907: The Peking to Paris car race was won by an Itala [Bar72].
08
A 1908 Itala.
1908: "General Motors (GM) was formed in the USA in 1908 when William C. (Billy) Durant brought Oldsmobile and Buick together to form General Motors Company. A year later, Cadillac and Oakland (which became Pontiac in 1932) marques joined General Motors." --GM.
1908: Ford Model-T production began.
1908: Harry Dutton and Murray Aunger drove from Adelaide to Darwin in a 25hp Talbot.
1909: Bugatti built his first car.
1911: FWD sold its first 4x4.
1911: First Indianapolis 500 race.
1913: Jeffrey Quad 4x4 truck went into production.
1913: Bamford and Martin Ltd founded; later became Aston Martin.
1914: The Society Anonima Officine Alfieri Maserati, Bologna, was created by the Maserati brothers.
1915: Big Lizzie road train (.au).
1917: First Oshkosh four wheel drive truck.
1919: Bentley founded.
1921: DKW - scooters first.
1922: Citroen half-tracks crossed the Sahara, leaving from Touggourt in Algeria.
1922: Baby Austin 7.
1922: Swallow Sidecar Company founded; later became Jaguar cars in 1945.
1923, May 26-27: First 24 hour race at Le Mans, won by Andre Lagache and Rene Leonard in a Chenard & Walcker at 92.06 km/h.
1924: Ernest Eldridge (GB), driving the Fiat special Mephistopheles (below) fitted with a 21.7-litre Fiat airship engine, set a Land Speed Record of 234.98km/h (146.01mph).
M at speed, more recently
1924: The first MG car was built - on a modified Morris Oxford chassis.
1924, December 28: Citroen half-tracks left to traverse Africa.
1925: Chrysler founded.
1927: Henry Segrave driving the "1000hp" Sunbeam raised the World Land Speed Record to over 200mph --FIA.
1927: Model-T production ended; 15 million Model Ts had been built from 1908 to 1927.
1927-1928: Francis Birtles drove a Bean car from England to Melbourne taking 10 months.
1928: Malcolm Campbell, driving Bluebird with a 950hp Napier engine, raised the World Land Speed Record to 206.96mph.
1929: AEC started to build AWD trucks in conjunction with FWD (UK).
1929: Henry Segrave driving the Golden Arrow raised the World Land Speed Record to 231.36mph (327.34km/h) -- FIA.
1929: First Monaco Grand Prix was won by Williams in a Bugatti -- FIA.
1931: Bentley taken over by Rolls Royce.
1931-1932: Citroen-Haardt expedition, using Citroen half-tracks, followed part of Marco-Polo's route from Beirut to Beijing.
1932: Audi became part of Auto-Union, with DKW, Horch and Wanderer.
1932: Miller 4x4 racing cars at Indianapolis.
1934: AEC road train (one of three built) was brought to Australia. It consisted of an 8×8 prime-mover and two 8-wheel self-tracking trailers.
1934: Dodge started building 4WD trucks (-George Miles).
1934: Prototype PX-33 four wheel drive car built for the Japanese government; the car did not go into production (Mitsubishi). Thanks to Balazs Toth.
1935: Malcolm Campbell in Bluebird raised to raised the World Land Speed Record to 301.129mph (484.620km/h) -- FIA.
1936: Toyota's first production car, the AA.
1937: Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget, aircraft factory founded, later became Saab.
1937: ‘Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des deutschen Volkswagens mbH’, Company for the Development of the German People's Car (VW), was registered [Hop71].
1938: GAZ 61 - Russian 4x4.
1940: The Jeep specifications were issued. 1940-1941: Bantam built 2700 light 4x4s, early "Jeeps".
1941-1945: Ford and Willys-Overland built 700,000 General Purpose vehicles for WWII. GP became Jeep.
1946, October 10: Unimog introduced (- H. J. Feil); also see 1951.
1948: Series-1 Land-Rover released.
1948: Porsche's first car had a 1086cc 30kW VW engine.
1948: Jaguar XK120 launched.
1948: Holden 48-215.
1948: Ford released the 1st of the F-Series vehicles.
1950: The Ford GPA, or amphibious Jeep, Half Safe was "driven" across the Atlantic ocean by Ben and Elinore Carlin. This is true!
1950: VW Transporter lays down the foundations of the hippy era.
1950: The first round of the inaugural FIA Formula One (F1) World Championship was held at Silverstone on 13 May; the seven-race season included Monaco, Switzerland, Belgium, France, Italy and the Indianapolis 500. "Nino" Farina, driving an Alfa Romeo 158, won the first race, and the championship.
1951: First Toyota Landcruiser was built under the BJ Jeep name. The LandCruiser name came in 1954.
1951: Daimler Benz ("Mercedes") took over Unimog; also see 1948.
1952: Suzuki's first motorcycle.
1952 March 12: Launch of the racing sports car version of the Mercedes Benz 300SL (of the gullwing doors).
1953: The first Redex Reliability Trial was held. Competitors had two weeks to cover 11,000km taking them around Australia. Ken Tubman and John Marshall won in a Peugeot 203.
1954-1956: The amphibious Jeep La Tortuga "drove" from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego.
1955-1956: London to Singapore Overland (except for the Channel!) in 2×Land-Rovers.
1955: Suzuki's first car.
1955: The wonderful Goggomobil.
1955 December 5: The 8 mile Preston by Pass (part of the M6) opened -- the UK's first stretch of motorway. The first stretch of the M1 opened on 2 November 1959 -- AA.
1958: First Toyota LandCruisers imported into Australia.
1959: BMC Mini went on sale.
1959: Haflinger by Steyr-Daimler-Puch.
1960: A Jeep and a Land-Rover traversed the Darien Gap.
1960: Ford Falcon XK.
1960: The first British traffic wardens took up duty in September.
1961: Jaguar E-type unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show.
1961: Stirling Moss drove a Ferguson Project 99 (P99) with the Ferguson 4WD system to victory in the Oulton Park Gold-Cup race.
1964, 17 July: Donald Campbell in Bluebird (4WD) raised the World Land Speed Record to 403mph at Lake Eyre, Australia.
1964: Porsche 911, it went on to become a classic.
1964: Mini Moke went on sale.
1965: VW bought Audi.
1965: Craig Breedlove in the jet car Spirit of America set a World Land Speed Record of 600.601mph (966.574km/h) -- FIA.
1966: The Jensen FF road car had Formula Ferguson 4WD and Dunlop Maxaret anti-lock brakes (ABS).
1967, January 4: Donald Campbell (1921-1967) was killed while attempting to raise the world water speed record to over 300mph on Coniston Water, uk.
1969: Ferrari joined the Fiat group.
1969, 20 July: The lunar module, Eagle, from Apollo 11 landed on the moon carrying Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin.
1970: Range Rover released - luxury full-time 4WD.
1971: Lunar rover "car" on the moon in the Apollo 15 mission.
1971: Ford Falcon XY ute 4WD (.au).
1971-1972: British Trans-Americas Range Rover expedition. The Darien Gap was the most difficult section.
1974: Subaru Leone 4x4 car.
1978 August: The .au Gvmt introduced import parity pricing for local oil and petrol reached au$0.21/litre [the Age p.5 1/1/2009] -- $0.95 per (imperial) gallon.
petrol au$0.21/l
1979: AMC produced the Eagle 4x4 car.
1981: The specifications for the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) was issued; later known as the Humvee or Hummer.
1981: Audi revolutionized rallying with the Quattro 4WD rally car.
1981: Porsche showed the Porsche 911 AWD concept car at the Frankfurt Motor Show.
1983: Land-Rover 110, coil-sprung, full-time 4WD.
1983: Richard Noble, driving the jet car Thrust2, raised the World Land Speed Record to 1019.47km/h (633.468mph), Black Rock Desert, 4/10/83 [NT98].
1984: A Porsche 911 AWD won the Paris Dakar rally.
1986: Porsche 959 AWDs finished 1, 2 and 6 in the Paris Dakar rally.
1992: McLaren F1 rewrote the super-car rule book.
1993: Maserati was bought by Fiat from de Tomaso.
1994: BMW bought Rover Group from BAe.
1996: Lotus was taken over by Proton.
1996: The new Jeep Wrangler got coil springs.
1997: Thrust SSC, driven by Andy Green, broke the sound barrier and raised the World Land Speed Record to 1227.985kph (763.035mph), Mach 1.0175 under the prevailing conditions [NT98].
1998: Bentley bought by VW. Is nothing sacred? BMW pulled a swifty and bought the Rolls Royce name.
1998: Bugatti name bought by VW.
1998: Chrysler and Mercedes-Benz merged to form DaimlerChrysler (splitting up again in 2007).
1999: Volvo cars sold to Ford.
2000: Ford bought LandRover, and Phoenix took over MG - Rover from BMW.
2001: BMW put the retro. new Mini on sale in Europe (.au in 2002).
2001 July: Rolls-Royce and Bentley Motor Cars announced details of the last Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph model to commemorate 97 years of Rolls-Royce cars; production ends with 2001. VW continued to build Bentleys but future Rolls Royces were to be built at BMW's new factory.
2002: Rolls-Royce became pure BMW, and Bentley pure Volkswagen.
2008: Crude oil rose as high as us$147/barrel in July before falling to the us$30s at year's end as the global financial crisis bit.
ULP au$1.00 to $1.70/l
2008: Needing cash, Ford sold Jaguar and LandRover to Tata of India.
2009, January 29: The Skycar, a "buggy" fitted with a parafoil wing, flew the Straits of Gibraltar en route from Paris to Tombouctou (Timbuktu).
2009: General Motors (GM) and Chrysler passed into bankruptcy and were restructured, the latter forming an alliance with Fiat. VW and Porsche began a merger.
2009, August 25 & 26: The British Steam Car raised the Land Speed Record for a steam powered car to 139.843mph and 148.308mph over the measured mile and kilometer respectively. (See 1906.)
2010, August 24: The Venturi Buckeye Bullet 2.5 streamliner (Ohio State Univ., Venturi Automobile), driven by Roger Schroer, set a Land Speed Record for a battery powered electric vehicle of 495.526 km/h (307.905mph) for 1km, 495.140 km/h (307.666mph) for 1 mile -- FIA (A.8.3).

References
[Bar72] L. Barzini, Peking to Paris, Alcove Press, 1972, edited and reprinted from the 1907 original.
[Geo00] N. Georgano (ed), The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile (2 vols.), The Stationary Office, London, 2000.
[Hop71] K. B. Hopfinger, The Volkswagen Story, G.T.Foulis & co., 1971.
[NT98] R. Noble & D. Tremayne, THRUST Through the Sound Barrier, Partridge 1998.
See motoring books.

Diesel Injection Pump

First thing's first: Pull the valve cover. I find that unscrewing the three 10 mm bolts that hold in the cruise control actuator and moving it over allows for easy replacement of the valve cover, for what it's worth. Then remove the fan blad and shroud from the bay by means of the four 10mm nuts that hold the fan in place. This will give you enough "swinging" room for turning the engine over by hand. Use a 27mm socket (a 1-1/8" works, also) on a small extension, 1/2" drive for turning the crank over by hand, and never go backwards. OK, this is all familiar from the valve adjustment routine.

To pull the pump, remove all lines attached. There is one fuel line banjo bolt on the block-side of the pump, one fuel line banjo bolt on the fender-side, and oil-feed line on the fender-side, and the fuel suply that goes to the priming pump and then from the pump to the main filter. I usually leave the two that run from the filter attached to the pump, and just removing them from the filter block. Remove the oil-feed from the pump, and this will allow easy access to the first nut you will remove. It is a 13mm, and there are three of them. The bottom is the easiest, I think. Just lay barely under the front of the car, reach your hand up there with a gear wrench, and feel for it. It's easy. To get to the top one, I use a 13mm deep-wall on a 6-inch extension on a U-joint on a 3/8" drive socket wrench. It's not to tough. And the middle one (blocked earlier by the oil-feed) can only be had by an open-ended wrench.

The final attachment is held in the back. It is a royal PITA to get to, and I have made a mock-up replacement. You will almost HAVE to use a gear wrench for it (it makes life a LOT easier). Once that is off, go under the car, and remove the support bracket that mounts to the block at the rear of the pump (held on by two 13mm bolts). Once all of this stuff is disconnected, you can remove the pump with the filter housing in place by sliding it straight back and upwards at the same time. I have heard it is sometimes necessary to remove the rack dampener pin, but I have never had to do so, and I have done this job probably around 11 or 12 times.

Once the pump is out, you will need to put your new one in. Crank the engine over many times by hand to get everything "settled". I doubt this does anything at all, but it's a mental thing for me (OK, so I'm crazy ;-). Look on the cam shaft near the front of the engine where it slides through the first bearing mount. You will see a tick mark. Turn the engine over until the stationary tick mark and the mobile tick mark are lined up. Your harmonic balancer should read at 0* TDC. Crank the engine around again, passing TDC once (that will be the exhaust stroke), and stop at 24* BEFORE TDC the second time. The tick mark on the cam should be just shy of reaching the TDC marker.

With the engine at this time setting, you will shoot the pump in. Take a 3/4" wrench for socket wrench, and as you look upon the nut on the front of the injection pump, turn it clockwise, making several resolutions. Then crank it, and again, only clockwise, until the spot with a missing tooth lines up with the dash mark that is set about 15* behind 12:00. It is easy for it to move out of time, so you must be gentle with the reinstallation.

Slide the collar that came off out of the engine with the pump over the sprocket on the pump. There is no special way to do this... just slide it on without turning anything. Piece of cake. Then, gently lower the pump into the engine, frontside going down first at an angle, and let it slide into place. Tighten it down at a random position with the nuts (NOT the rear bolt) and connect the feed lines. Pump the hand-priming pump to hell, and vent off your fuel filter so that there is NO more air in the system. Crank the engine over by hand, and see if fuel comes out of the feed lines. If it does, great. If not, reconnect your fuel injection lines, and pull the socket wrench of the engine. Then, disconnect your glow plug relay, go in your car, and hit the starter a few times to build some pressure in the lines without starting the engine. Go remove the line #1 injection line, and soak up the diesel in the port with the corner of a shop rag, being careful not to leave lint or anything behind. Then crank the engine over by hand, monitoring that first port. When you just BARELY start to see fuel well up in it, stop. Look at your degree marker. If it is at 24* BTDC, then your perfect, though I hear running at 26* can offer a little more low-end power. To advance, loosen the three nuts, and tilt the pump AWAY from the block with a cheater bar of some sort. Two people help this to be done a little more easily, as one can hold the cheater bar in place while the other tightens the pump. The lines will act as a memory-spring that can be a pain to deal with. If you want, remove all the lines (which is what I prefer).